Stakeholder And Issues Management Approaches Management Essay

Stakeholder And Issues Management Approaches Management Essay The stakeholder management approach is a response to the growth and complexity of contemporary organizations and the need to understand how they operate with their stakeholders and stockholders. Underlying the stakeholder management approach is the ethical imperative that mandates businesses in their fiduciary relationships to their stockholders and shareholders to: 1) act in the best interests of and for the benefit of their customers, employees, suppliers, and stockholders; and 2) respect and fulfill these stakeholders rights. The ethical dimension of this approach is based on the view that profit maximization is constrained by justice, that regard for individual rights should be extended to all constituencies of business that have a stake in the affairs of business, and that organizations do act in socially responsible ways not only because it is the right thing to do, but also to ensure their legitimacy. A. The Outsourcing Debate 1. Competing stakeholder claims become heated when executives must choose between profit and the welfare of some or all stakeholders. 2. Conflicting studies report that, on one hand, every dollar of corporate spending shifted offshore generates $1.13 in new wealth for Americas economy and, on the other hand, U.S. workers may lose $120 billion in wages to outsourcing by 2015. Arguments against outsourcing of jobs and work include: Jobs are not presently being created in the private sector, which has not happened before in U.S. history. The U.S. trade deficit continues to escalate, with no trade surplus in the United States for more than 20 years. At least three million jobs have been lost over the last three years, with no end in sight. The job loss is not only at lower levels, but also at middle and administrative levels. Local communities and states depend on individual and corporate taxes to survive. Massive outsourcing threatens the American middle class as well as local communities. 3. In a pluralistic society, corporate leaders need a method that helps them understand and keep score on each of their stakeholders strategies, ethics, and power relationships. 2.2 Stakeholder Management Approach Defined The stakeholder approach argues that ethical principles can result in significant competitive advantage, and provides a framework that enables users to map and, ideally, manage corporation relationships (present and potential) with groups to reach win-win collaborative outcomes. A stakeholder approach does not have to result from a crisis or controversial situation nor is it limited in its use to large enterprises. It can also be used as a planning method to anticipate and facilitate business decisions, events, and policy outcomes. A. Stakeholders 1. A stakeholder is any individual or group who can affect or is affected by the actions, decisions, policies, practices, or goals of the organization. The focal stakeholder is the company or group that is the center or focus of an analysis. Primary stakeholders include owners, customers, employees, suppliers, stockholders and the board of directors. Secondary stakeholders include all other interested groups, such as the media, consumers, lobbyists, courts, governments, competitors, the public, and society. B. Stakes 1. A stake is any interest, share, or claim that a group or individual has in the outcome of a corporations policies, procedures, or actions toward others. 2.3 How to Execute a Stakeholder Analysis The stakeholder analysis is a pragmatic way of identifying and understanding multiple (often competing) claims of many constituencies. A. Taking a Third-Party Objective Observer Perspective 1. Taking a third-party objective observer perspective while doing the stakeholder analysis in the following section helps students see all sides of an issue and then objectively evaluate the claims, actions, and outcomes of all parties. B. Role of the CEO in Stakeholder Analysis 1. The stakeholder analysis is a series of seven steps aimed at the following tasks (Frederick et al, 1988): Step 1: Map Stakeholder Relationships Figure 2.2 shows a general picture of an initial stakeholder map. The following five questions, in particular, offer a quick jump start on the analysis: Who are our stakeholders currently? Who are our potential stakeholders? How does each stakeholder affect us? How do we affect each stakeholder? For each division and business, who are the stakeholders? Step 2: Map Stakeholder Coalitions. Determine and map any coalitions that have formed. Coalitions among and between stakeholders form around issues and stakes that they have or seek to have in common. Step 3: Assess the Nature of Each Stakeholders Interest Along with Step 4, this step helps in assessing the nature of each stakeholders power by identifying the interests of various stakeholders as supportive, nonsupportive, mixed blessing, or marginal. Step 4: Assess the Nature of Each Stakeholders Power. This part of the analysis asks, Whats in it for each stakeholder? and Who stands to win, lose, or draw over certain stakes? Three types of especially useful stakeholders are those with voting power, political power, and economic power (Freeman, 1984). Step 5: Identify Stakeholder Ethics and Moral Responsibilities Determine the ethics, responsibilities, and moral obligations your company has to each stakeholder. Figure 2.3 shows a matrix of stakeholder responsibilities. This part of the analysis should continue until you have completed matching the economic, legal, ethical, and voluntary responsibilities for each stakeholder, so that you can develop strategies toward each stakeholder you have identified. Step 6: Develop Specific Strategies and Tactics. First, consider whether to approach each stakeholder directly or indirectly. Second, decide whether to do nothing, monitor, or take an offensive or defensive position with certain stakeholders. Third, determine whether to accommodate, negotiate, manipulate, resist, avoid, or wait and see with specific stakeholders. Finally, decide what combination of strategies you want to employ. Figure 2.4 provides a useful typology for both identifying and deciding strategies to employ in a complex situation, based on potential for threat and potential for cooperation. Figure 2.5 presents an illustration of the typology in Figure 2.7, using the Microsoft case as an example. While developing specific strategies, it is important to keep the following points in mind if you are the focal stakeholder: Your goal is to create a win-win set of outcomes, if possible. Keep your mission and responsibilities in mind as you move forward. Consider what the probably consequences of your actions will be. Keep in mind that the means you use are important as the ends you seek. Step 7: Monitor Shifting Coalitions Because time and events can change the stakes and stakeholders, it is important to monitor the evolution of the issues and actions of the stakeholders, using Figure 2.4. C. Summary of Stakeholder Analysis 1. The stakeholder approach should involve other decision makers inside and outside the focal organization. 2. The stakeholder analysis provides a rational systematic basis for understanding issues involved in complex relationships between an organization and its constituencies. 3. The extent to which the resultant strategies and outcomes are moral and are effective for a firm and its stakeholders depends on many factors, including the values of the firms leaders, the stakeholders power, the legitimacy of the actions, the use of available resources, and the exigencies of the changing environment. 2.4 Negotiation Methods: Resolving Stakeholder Disputes Disputes are part of stakeholder relationships. They occur between different stakeholder levels: e.g. between professionals within an organization; consumers and companies; business to business (B2B); governments and businesses; and among coalitions and businesses. A. Stakeholder Dispute Resolution Methods 1. Dispute resolution is an expertise known as alternative dispute resolution (ADR). Its techniques cover a variety of methods intended to help litigants resolve conflicts (see Figure 2.6). 2. Integrative approaches are characterized as follows: Problems are seen as having more potential solutions than are immediately obvious. Resources are seen as expandable; the goal is to expand the pie before dividing it. Parties attempting to create more potential solutions and processes are thus said to be value creating. Parties attempting to accommodate as many interests of each of the parties as possible. The so-called win-win or all gain approach. 3. Distributive approaches have the following characteristics: Problems are seen as zero sum. Resources are imagined as fixed: divide the pie. Value claiming. Haggling or splitting the difference. 4. Relational approaches consider power, interests, rights, and ethics, and are based on: Relationship building. Narrative, deliberative, and other dialogical (i.e. dialogue-based) approaches to negotiation and mediation. Restorative justice and reconciliation (i.e., approaches that respect the dignity of every person, build understanding, and provide opportunities for victims to obtain restoration and for offenders to take responsibility for their actions). Other transformative approaches to peacebuilding. 5. Four principles of negotiation used in almost any type of dispute include: Separate the people from the problem. Focus on the interests rather than positions. Generate a variety of options before settling on an agreement. Insist that the agreement be based on objective criteria. 2.5 Stakeholder Approach and Ethical Reasoning The stakeholder analysis requires the focal or principal stakeholders to define and fulfill their ethical obligations to the affected constituencies. Chapter 3 explains major ethical principles that can be used to examine individual motivation for resolving an ethical dilemma, including rights, justice, utilitarianism, relativism, and universalism. 2.6 Moral Responsibilities of Cross-Functional Area Professionals One goal of a stakeholder analysis is to encourage and prepare organizational managers to articulate their own moral responsibility, as well as the responsibilities of their company and their profession, toward their different constituencies. With the Internet, the transparency of all organizational actors and internal stakeholders increases the risk and stakes of unethical practices. Figure 2.7 illustrates a managers stakeholders. A. Marketing and Sales Professionals and Managers as Stakeholders 1. Sales professionals and managers are continuously engaged-electronically and/or face-to-face-with customers, suppliers, and vendors. 2. Moral dilemmas can arise for marketing managers who may be asked to promote unsafe products or implement advertising campaigns that are untrue or not in the consumers best interests. 3. The stakeholder analysis helps marketing managers in morally questionable situations in terms of identifying stakeholders and understanding the effects and consequences of profits and services on them. B. RD Engineering Professionals and Managers as Stakeholders 1. RD managers and engineers are responsible for the safety and reliability of product design. RD managers must work and communicate effectively and conscientiously with professionals in manufacturing, marketing, and information systems; senior managers; contractors; and government representatives, to name a few stakeholders. 2. Moral dilemmas can arise for RD engineers whose technical judgment and risk assessments conflict with administrative managers seeking profit and time- to-market deadlines. C. Public Relations Managers as Stakeholders 1. Public relations (PR) managers must constantly interact with outside groups and corporate executives, especially in an age when communications media, external relations, and public scrutiny play such vital roles. 2. PR managers are responsible for transmitting, receiving, and interpreting information on employees, products, services, and the company. 3. Moral dilemmas can arise when PR managers must defend or protect company actions that have possible or known harmful effects on the public or stakeholders. D. Human Resource Managers as Stakeholders 1. Human resource managers (HRMs) are on the front line of helping other managers recruit, hire, fire, promote, evaluate, reward, discipline, transfer, and counsel employees. HRM professionals stakeholders include but are not limited to employees, other managers and bosses, unions, community groups, government employees, lobbyists, and competitors. 2. Human resource managers face constant ethical pressures and uncertainties over issues about invasion of privacy and violations of employees rights. 3. Moral dilemmas can arise when affirmative action policies are threatened in favor of corporate decisions to hide biases or protect profits. HRM professionals also straddle the often-fine line between the individual rights of employees and corporate self-interests. E. Summary of Managerial Moral Responsibilities 1. Expert and functional area managers are confronted with balancing operational profit goals with corporate moral obligations toward stakeholders. Using a stakeholder analysis helps clarify the issues involved in resolving ethical dilemmas. 2.7 Issues Management, Stakeholder Approach, and Ethics: Integrating Frameworks Issues management methods complement the stakeholder management approach. Issues management is also a formal process used to anticipate and take appropriate action to respond to emerging trends, concerns, or issues that can affect an organization and its stakeholders. A. What is a Public Issue? Many national and international business-related controversies develop around the exposure of a single issue that evolves into more serious and costly issues. Stakeholder and issues management frameworks can be used to understand the evolution of these issues in order to responsibly manage or change their effects. B. Other Public Issues There are other types of public issues from the external environment that involve different companies and industries. For example the issue of obesity has become prominent. Another issue that affects numerous stakeholders is drivers who drink. C. Stakeholder and Issues Management: Connecting the Dots 1. Issues and stakeholder management are used interchangeably by scholars and corporate practitioners. The process begins by analyzing and then framing which issues are the most urgent and have (or may have) the greatest impact on the organization. 2. Stakeholder analysis questions help connect the dots in understanding and closing the gaps of issues management. D. Moral Dimensions of Stakeholder and Issues Management 1. Ethical reasoning and behavior are an important part of managing stakeholders and issues because ethics is the energy that motivates people to respond to issues. When ethical motives are absent from leaders and professionals thinking and feeling, activities occur that cost all stakeholders. E. Introduction to Three Issue Management Frameworks 1. This section presents three general issues frameworks for mapping and managing issues before and after they become crises, all of which can be used with the stakeholder management approach. F. First Approach: 6-Step Issue Management Process 1. The process involves the following steps, illustrated in Figure 2.8: Environmental scanning and issues identification. Issues analysis. Issues ranking and prioritizing. Issues resolution strategizing. Issues response and implementation. Issues evaluation and monitoring. 2. These steps are part of a firms corporate planning process. This framework is a basic approach for proactively mapping, strategizing, and responding to issues that affect an organization. G. Second Approach: 7-Phase Issue Development Process (Figure 2.9) 1. Issues are believed to follow a developmental life cycle. Views differ on the stages and time involved in the life cycle. A felt need arises. Media coverage is developed. Interest group development gains momentum and grows. Policies are adopted by leading political jurisdictions. The federal government gives attention to the issue. Issues and policies evolve into legislation and regulation. Issues and policies enter litigation. H. 4-Stage Issue Life Cycle 1. Thomas Marx observed that issues evolve from social expectations to social control through the following steps: Social expectations. Political issues. Legislation. Social control. 2.8 Managing Crises Crisis management methods evolved from the study of how corporations and leaders responded (and should have responded) to crises. Crises, from a corporations point of view, can deteriorate if the situation escalates in intensity, comes under close governmental scrutiny, interferes with normal operations, jeopardizes the positive image of the company or its officers, and damages a firms bottom line. A. First Approach: Precrisis through Resolution (figure 2.11) 1. According to this model, a crisis consists of four stages: Prodromal (precrisis) warning symptoms. Acute damage done, point of no return. Chronic recover, self-analysis, self-doubt, healing. Resolution return to normalcy, the goal of crisis management. B. How Executives Have Responded to Crises 1. Matthews, Goodpaster, and Nash have suggested five phases of corporate social response to crises related to product crisis management, based on their study of how corporations have responded to serious crises. The phases, illustrated in Figure 2.12, are: Reaction lack of complete information, lack of time to analyze the event thoroughly. Defense overwhelmed by public attention, recoiling under media pressure. Insight stakes are substantial, executives realize and confirm whether company is at fault. Accommodation address public pressure and anxiety. Agency understand causes of safety issue and develop education program for the public. C. Crisis Management Recommendations 1. Corporations can respond more effectively to crises by: Facing the problem and telling the truth. Taking their lumps in one big news story. Recognizing there is no such thing as a secret or private crisis. Staging war games. Using their motto, philosophy, or mission statement to respond to a crisis. Using their closeness to customers and end users for early feedback. 2. The following tactical recommendations are helpful crisis prevention and management techniques: Understand your entire business and dependencies. Carry out a business impact assessment. Complete a 360-degree risk assessment. Develop a feasible, relevant, and attractive response. Plan exercising, maintenance, and auditing. 3. Issues and crisis management methods and preventive techniques are effective in corporations only if: Top management is supportive and participates. Involvement is cross departmental. The issues management unit fits with the firms culture. Output, instead of process, is the focus. Ethical Insight 2.1: Consultants Split On Bridgestones Crisis Management This case study examines how certain crisis management experts viewed the handling of the Bridgestone/Firestone scenario. The experts express their ideas and opinions on the case. questions What, if anything should Mattels CEO have done differently in this scenario/case to have prevented and/or avoided the resulting crisis? Explain. Answer: Students opinions will vary. There were a number of factors at play, many of which were internal to Mattel, but others that were not. The answer should involve a discussion of the stakeholder framework. The stakeholder analysis provides a rational, systematic basis for understanding issues involved in complex relationships between an organization and its constituents. It helps decision makers structure strategic planning sessions and decide how to meet the moral obligations of all stakeholders. The extent to which the resultant strategies and outcomes are moral and are effective for a firm and its stakeholders depends on many factors, including the values of the firms leaders, the stakeholders power, the legitimacy of the actions, the use of available resources, and the exigencies of the changing environment. Briefly describe a situation in which you were a major stakeholder. How was the situation resolved (or not resolved)? What methods were used to resolve the situation? Looking back now, what methods could or should have been used to resolve that situation? For example, what would you now recommend happen to effectively resolve it fairly? Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own experiences. Which of the types of power (described in this chapter) that stakeholders can use have you effectively used in a conflict or disagreement over a complex issue? Briefly explain the outcome and evaluate your use(s) of power. Answer: The students answer will vary. The answer should involve a description of power from the chapter. Three types of power stakeholders can use are (1) voting power, (2) political power, and (3) economic power. For example, owners and stockholders can vote their choices to affect the firms decisions. Federal, state, and local governments can exercise their political power by increasing regulations. Consumers can exercise their economic power by boycotting a firms products. Which roles and responsibilities in this chapter have you assumed in an organization? What pressures did you experience in that role that presented ethical dilemmas or issues for you? Explain. Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own experiences. What are the reasons for encouraging managers to use the stakeholder approach? Would these reasons apply to teams? Answer: Why should individual expert and functional area managers use the stakeholder analysis? First, by thinking in terms of stakeholders, managers can acknowledge and being to change their perceptual biases, blind spots, and harmful activities that affect the firms and their units operations. The analysis allows them to see and perform their roles and moral responsibilities toward external and internal groups. Second, by seeing how managers in a firm handle their complex stakeholder relationships, individual managers can begin to create value and realize corporate moral and legal obligations toward stakeholders. Third, the basis for increasing the quality of cross-functional communication and integration can be developed. The process and results of the stakeholder analysis can provide a platform for opening corporate communication channels to discuss stressful, unrealistic, or immoral expectations, problems, and pressures that often lead to illegal and unethical activities, such a s creating faulty products, price-fixing, cheating, and lying. Finally, by identifying specific stakeholders responsibilities, expert area managers can begin to see common patterns of pressures, resources, and ethical issues across the firm. An enterprises moral identity and mission can be identified or reinforced. Moreover, managers can begin to think ahead and operate with moral responsibility as they perform their work. These underlying concepts can apply to any group, team, or area managers for doing stakeholder analysis. Give a recent example of a corporation that had to publicly manage a crisis. Did the company spokesperson respond effectively to stakeholders regarding the crisis? What should the company have done differently in its handling of the crisis? Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own awareness of recent corporate public confidence issues. Some suggested examples include: Texaco ¾racial discrimination Mitsubishi ¾sexual harassment Archer-Daniels-Midland Company ¾price fixing Reynolds Tobacco ¾controversy regarding health problems of smoking Enron, WorldCom ¾accounting fraud Arthur Anderson ¾ineffective auditing procedures Political Parties ¾campaign financing/fundraising Describe how you would feel and what actions you would take if you worked in a company and saw a potential crisis emerging at the prodromal or precrisis stage. What would you say, to whom, and why? Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own experiences. Using Figure 2.4, identify a complex issue-related controversy or situation in which you, as a stakeholder, were persuaded to move from one position (cell) to another and why e.g., from nonsupportive to supportive, or from mixed blessing to marginal. Explain why you moved and what the outcome was. Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own experiences. Argue both the pros and cons of stakeholder theory, using some of the arguments in the chapter, as well as your own. What is your evaluation of the usefulness of stakeholder theory and methods in understanding and analyzing complex issues? Answer: Students responses will vary according to their own experiences. They should include in their answer pros and cons from the chapter. Cons: (1) negates and weakens fiduciary duties managers owe to stockholders; (2) weakens the influence and power of stakeholder groups; (3) weakens the firm; and (4) changes the long-term character of the capitalist system. Pros: (1) The approach provides an analytical method for determining how various constituencies affect and are affected by business activities. (2) It also provides a means for assessing the power, legitimacy, and moral responsibility of managers strategies in terms of how they meet the needs and obligations of stakeholders. exercises (Responses to the following exercises will vary with students experiences and views. However, sample responses are provided as suggestions where possible.) Describe a situation in which you were a stakeholder. What was the issue? What were your stakes? Who were the other stakeholders? What was the outcome? Did you have a win-win resolution? If not, who won, who lost, and why? Answer: A local department store had a policy that merchandise must be returned within 30 days of purchase for a cash refund. As a customer of this department store, I had purchased an item as a gift for a friends wedding. The wedding was canceled, and I went to the store to return the item I had purchased. I had my receipt and the item had not been opened. The date on the receipt showed I had purchased the item 34 days earlier. The clerk at the returns desk refused to accept the return due to the fact that the purchase was made more than 30 days ago. Given the reason for the purchase and return, I felt that this was unreasonable and requested to speak to the manager. After careful consideration and much argument, the manager agreed to accept the return, but only as an in-store exchange credit. Due to the hassles involved, both parties came away as losers. As a customer, I was not totally satisfied and will most likely take my business to another store with a more liberal and persona lized refund policy. The manager lost due to having to argue with me and this resulted in the loss of my business. Recall your personal work history. Who were your managers most important stakeholders? What, in general, were your managers major stakes in his or her particular position? Answer: In almost every business circumstance, the managers most important stakeholder has been the customer. The line most often heard was The customer is always right. It makes sense for the customer to be the most important stakeholder, because without the customer no other stakeholders would exist. If the customers are not satisfied, then they conduct their business elsewhere and the company ceases to exist. In your company or one in which you have worked, what is the industry? The major external environments? Your product or service? Describe the major influences of each environment on your company (for example, on its competitiveness and ability to survive). Evaluate how well your company is managing its environments strategically, operationally, and technologically, as well as in relation to new products and public reputation. Answer: ABC Consulting and Accounting, Inc. The industry of business consulting and accounting. The environments that most often accompany the consulting and accounting firms are economic, legal, and government/regulatory. The service provided by ABC consists of all accounting functions ¾bookkeeping, financial statement preparation, tax preparation, auditing, etc. The consulting services provided consist of reorganization, cost analysis, tax planning, capital investment planning, budgeting, etc. Potential stakeholders are government regulatory agencies-FASB, GAAP-as well as the stockholders of the business customers, their customers, their employees, etc. Each stakeholder affects ABC by either limiting what can be done in regards to reorganizing or analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the firms that are our customers, or by the way that the accounting records are kept and reported. We affect our stakeholders by providing the service that they requested to the best of our ability. Choose one type of functional area manager described in the chapter. Describe a dilemma involving this manager, taken from a recent media report. Discuss how a stakeholder analysis could have helped or would help that manager work effectively with stakeholders. Answer: Regarding th

The Lively Earth: Important Features Make the Earth Unique

EASC 2112 Earth System The lively Earth: important features make the Earth unique Name: Leung Ho Nam, Banson UID: 2011712579 Introduction: The Earth is one of the eight planets in the solar system. The planet Earth is emphasized as â€Å"the rare Earth† in numerous literatures because of its unique physical conditions and the complicated interactions among all biotic and abiotic systems. Isotope dating indicates the earth was formed approximately from 4. 53 to 4. 568 Ga, according to isotope used (Allegre et. al. , 1995).Despite the precise formation time of the Earth, there is no exact planet formation model that is generally accepted except the minimum mass solar nebula model, MMSN (Canup, 2008). The MMSN model suggested the planetary accretion of the Earth and other terrestrial planets begins with a disc of hydrogen abundant gas and dust, circulating around the sun. Following by a series of collision, small particles combine and collapse repeatedly. The runaway growth slows down until reaching a certain mass (Canup, 2008). The formation process is crucial to the evolution of the Earth because it determines the source of materials which the Earth contains.The formation of the Earth, indeed, is not specific enough to comprise â€Å"the rare Earth† because all solar planets were grown within a circumsolar disc of gas and dust suggested by Canuo (2008). When we look at the solar system from the outer space, the Earth is probably the only shiny blue planet because of water surface reflection. 70 percent of the Earth surface is covered by the ocean. There is approximately 1. 4 billion km2 of liquid water by mass on Earth (Oak & Kanae, 2006). The existence of permanent liquid water responsible to create a mild temperature and a stable environment.Liquid water is an important element implicates the emergence and evolution of life on Earth after a few million years from the latest collision (Baross & Hoffman, 1985). The distinct blue colour of t he ocean and the green colour of the terrestrial land is obvious on the Earth surface. Nevertheless, it is hardly to observe the entire view of the surface because of the scattering effect (Adams, 1934) and screening effect of the cohesive cloud in the atmosphere. Differences between the earth’s atmosphere and other planetary atmosphere including the presence of oxygen and relatively low carbon dioxide concentration.The atmosphere is extremely important to the biosphere. Without atmosphere, organisms nowadays would probably remain in the simple form or single celled. Furthermore, the ozone layer in the atmosphere absorbs and reflects part of the solar radiation incoming from the sun. This reduction of solar radiation lowers down the atmospheric temperature dramatically which allows organisms to survive. The Earth would not be so unique among the solar system when missing either one of the systems. The Gaia hypothesis links this concept and indicates the Earth is a giant self- regulating system.The interactions of the organisms with their abiotic environments modified the condition of the Earth such as oxygen content and atmospheric temperature, making the Earth more habitable terrestrial planet (Lovelock, 1973). Evolution of the Earth: Allegre and the research team (1995) suggested that the Earth was formed 4. 53 to about 4. 7 Ga. The age range of the earth was estimated by means of a series of isotope dating so the results are relatively valid. The Earth queues the third planet from the sun and its average radius is 6371 km (Lide, 2000).Because of specific distance from the sun and the size, the Earth prevents some of the very light elements, such as hydrogen, from escaping, by gravitational force (Adams, 1934). Moreover, the Earth has a gravitational force of 10 g (Yoder, 1995). Gravitational force is an inconspicuous pull generated from the Earth core. The Earth self-spins once it is formed. The rotation period of the earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes (Gold, 1967). This spinning effect creates centrifugal force which differentiate substances by mass. Heavy metal tends to migrate toward the Earth core and leaving the light materials outside.When time passes, the surface of the earth cools and the first land formed. Although land also appears in other planets such as Mars, the crust of the Earth is different. Interestingly, unlike Mars, the Earth surface is not covered by a concrete sphere but a few tectonic plates. Since the Mars is much smaller than the Earth so the cooling effect of Mars is much faster than the Earth. By now, the crust of the Mars has not been renewed for a certain long period. The plate tectonic moves with three strategies, convergency, divergency and transformation. The movement of the plates driven by the underneath semisolid magma (Courteny, 2008).Surface morphology is determined by the way which the tectonic plates move and density of the plates. Tectonic activities, earthquake, mountain-building, volcanic eruption and subduction zone, are restricted along plate boundaries (Courtery, 2008). Volcanic activities and oceanic subduction are extremely important processes to deliver materials from the inner core and renew surface materials respectively. These recycling processes keep providing accessible resources for the living organisms. Atmosphere and ocean formation was also suggested to be related to volcanic activities (Morbidelli, 2000).Aforementioned that self-spinning of the Earth differentiate substances on Earth. Iron, as a metal that can be magnetized, and with accordingly high atomic mass, moves inward and forms the core. After 60 million years after the late Heavy Bombardment, the magnetic field was established (Staff, 2010). Studies from Karato (1993) implies the magnetic field may relate to the magnetizing properties of iron. No matter how the Earth’s magnetic field was formed, it â€Å"prevents the atmosphere being stripped away by the solar wind† (Staff, 2010 ). Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the outermost, thin layer enclosing the Earth.The composition of the atmosphere for example, oxygen, is imperative to the evolution of the Earth. The atmosphere of the Earth is comparable to the nearby terrestrial planet such as Mars and Venus. Given that the average distance and the size of Venus from the sun is 3/4 and 4/5 of the Earth, Venus has an atmosphere (Adams, 1934). Spectroscopic studies indicate that the atmosphere of Venus does not show any markings representing the presence of oxygen and water vapour, even if these elements, once, had been appearing on Venus, they were consumed by the crust.Another result in the same spectroscopic concluded that the Venus atmosphere contains a high concentration of carbon dioxide, triggering a sever greenhouse effect (Adams, 1934). In addition to Venus, the Mars with only one tenth by the mass of the Earth also has an atmosphere. Spectrograms studies raised significant markings on ? 8300 and ? 8700 reco gnizes the appearance of water and carbon dioxide respectively on the Mars atmosphere(Kaplan et. al. , 1964). The presence of water on Mars is obvious with the ice cap present in the polar region of Mars (Adams, 1934).Not surprisingly, oxygen absents in Mars atmosphere and was proofed by the light frequency relative to carbon dioxide was not absorbed by the Mars atmosphere (Kaplan et. al.. 1964). From the example of Venus and Mars, it clearly shows that containing such a high concentration of oxygen, 21%, with extraordinary low carbon dioxide concentration, 0. 03%, as the Earth’s atmosphere is uncommon in the solar system. The composition of the Earth atmosphere provides with evidences that it has been modified by some other factors. This modification, as we know, was conducted by plants.Plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale free oxygen as a by-product through the process of photosynthesis, inorganic substances were also converted into organic substances during the process (Berkner & Marshall, 1965). Free oxygen facilitates the evolution of organisms because high oxygen concentration triggers aerobic respiration, without oxygen, organisms nowadays would probably remain simple (Fenchel & Finlay, 1994). Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration not only limit on the requirement of oxygen, the oxidizing power and good electron accepting properties of oxygen boosts energy metabolism (Babcock, 1999).Babcock (1999) also stated that aerobic respiration releases much more ATPs than anaerobic respiration, ATP can be treated as the energy storage unit in organisms. In other words, organisms undergo aerobic respiration can perform more vigorous activities or prolong the duration of the activities. Furthermore, the ozone layer derived from the excess free oxygen incubated a habitable environment for living organisms. The ozone layer with related to energy budget and the effect on human was well examined in Norway (Adams, 1934; Henriksen, 1990) .The ozone layer prevents living organisms burnt to death by screening out part of the UV-radiation reaching to the Earth surface. Hydrosphere: By the time when Earth was just formed, water from asteroids,  proto-planets, and  comets was locked in the core. Volcanic extrusion and outgassing brings magma along with dissolved gas and water vapour to the surface respectively. Extruded gas and water vapour suspended in the atmosphere therefore atmospheric pressure continuously increases. Water condenses when the atmospheric vapour pressure is saturated.Water droplets fall onto the ground and ocean formed (Morbidelli, 2000). Liquid water is an advance heat reservior because of having an extremely high specific heat capacity, 4200J/kg/?. This significantly high specific heat capacity, in other words, a large sum of energy can only result in a small extent of changes in temperature of water. The high energy absorption ability combined with the ocean current makes the ocean a good vecto r for transporting absorbed solar energy and regulating global climate (Michon, 2006). Apart from an excellent thermal reservoir, liquid water is also a good solvent.Gases in the atmosphere and minerals from the hydorthermal vents can easily dissolve into the water. Dissolved gas and minerals has planted a seed to the extensive evolution of life throughout the geological time (Morris, 2007). Biosphere: As we discussed the geosphere, atmosphere and the hydrosphere above, these systems have one thing in common. All the systems are linked with the biosphere. Although other planets in the solar system exhibit either physical feature, mostly not more than two, with Earth. The true uniqueness of the Earth raised from the presents of life which cannot be found on other planets recently.The origin of life is still a hot arguing topic among groups of scientists. However, the hydothermal vent is the most commonly and recently acceptable concepts of the origin of life (Baross & Hoffman, 19 85). The origin of life via submarine hydrothermal vent hypothesis has not been disproved yet since it was published because there are no other environment on Earth can provide a thermo-stable habitat with abundant minerals supply, for example, nitrogen and sulphur, for life establishment (Baross & Hoffman, 1985). Photosynthesis is considered as a key issue of the origin of life (Hartman, 1996).Bacteria record found in western Australia, dated as 3. 5 billion years ago, stated that cyanobacteria may be the first autotrophic organism and responsible for the later atmospheric modification (Awranik, 1992). This key process opens the window of free oxygen, hence considerably boosted the evolution of organisms. The GAIA Hypothesis: Every system discussed above has its own features and contributions within the system boundaries. There is no doubt that every literatures when emphasizing the planet Earth, it can hardly find any paper just put the focus on a single system.The same situat ion can also be observed in this article. For example, in the discussion part of the origin and development of the atmosphere, the tectonic activities and outgassing processes were mentioned. Moreover, a similar case was obtained when investigating biosphere. Although the whole part is bias towards living organisms, the effect of atmosphere to the biosphere can hardly be eliminated. The above situation is not due to the habit of the authors or the regulations of the publishers but it is the real case of the Earth.All systems on the Earth, including geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere or even self-defined systems, are interdependent. These systems interact with each other to create a more habitable planey. This complex interaction has long been observed by James Lovelock (1973) and explained in the GAIA Hypothesis. GAIA hypothesis suggested early life form achieve some sort of ability to control the global climate and the effect is still active. Lovelock (1972) stated that once the life exist on Earth, the physical environment and the chemical states had resulted a dramatic change.For example, the solar radiation level had increased dramatically since life exists. The Earth surface temperature, nevertheless, has only changed for a few degrees, throughout billion of years, compared to the current temperature. More interestingly, the rate and the extent of temperature change during the past billion years is so slow and mild respectively that the environment always permit the persistence of living organisms or provide long enough time for organisms to adapt. Without life, the atmosphere of the Earth will be similar to that of Mars and Venus.The above example, therefore, proved that the atmosphere we are now breathing is â€Å"biological contrivance† (Lovelock, 1972). The terms â€Å"Spaceship Earth† (Lovelock, 1972) was used to represent the planet where we are living. When astronauts were sent into the space, all the requirements for survi val can only obtain from the storage in the spaceship. If either system in the spaceship fails, astronauts will probably die. Conclusion: Doubtlessly, the Earth has many physical environments that absent in other planets. For example, liquid water and living organisms.However, what really makes the Earth rare is the interaction between different functional systems with unknown complexity. These interactions connected to the terminology of the â€Å"Spaceship Earth† meaning the Earth has the ability to self-regulate to adjust its own environmental condition that result in a harmonious giant system. Reference: Awramik, S. M. (1992). The oldest records of photosynthesis. PhotosynthesisResearch 33 (2): 75-89 Claude J. Allegre,  Gerard Manhes,  Christa Gopel, (1995). The age of the Earth. David R. Lide. (2000). Various. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics  . 1 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 59 (8):1445–1456 Gerald T Babcock. (1999). How oxygen is activated and reduced in respiration. PNAS. 96(23):12971-12973 Henriksen, Thormod, Dahlback, Arne, Larsen, Soren H. H. Moan, Johan. (1990). ULTRAVIOLET-RADIATION and SKIN CANCER. EFFECT OF AN OZONE LAYERDEPLETION. Photochemistry and Photobiology. 51 (5):579-582 Hyman Hartman. (1996). Photosynthesis and the origin of life. Origins of life andevolution of the biosphere. 28:515-521 James E. Lovelock, (1972). Chapter 25: GAIA as seen through the atmosphere.Atmospheric environment. 6 (8):579-580 James E. Lovelock, (1973). Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: thegaia hypothesis. Tellus. 26 (1-2):2-10 John A. Baross & Sarah E. Hoffman. (1985). Submarine hydrothermal vents andassociated gradient environments as sites for the origin and evolution of life. Origin of life and evolution of the biosphere. 15 (4):327-345 L. V. Berkner & L. C. Marshall. (1965). On the origin and rise of oxygen concentrationin the earth’s atmosphere. Journal of the atmospheric science. 22(3):225-261 Lewis D. Kaplan, Guido Munch, Hyron Spinrad (1964). An analysis of the spectrum ofMars. The astrophysical journal. 139 (1): 1-15 Morbidelli, A. et al. (2000). Source regions and time scales for the delivery of waterto Earth. Meteoritics & Planetary Science  35  (6): 1309–1320 Morris, Ron M. (2007). Oceanic Processes. NASA Astrobiology Magazine. P. D. Moore. (1983). Plants and the palaeoatmosphere. Journal of the GeologicalSociety of London, 140(1):13-25 Robin M. Canup, (2008). Accretion of the Earth. Philosophical Transactions:Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 66:4061-4075 Scott, Michon (2007). Earth's Big heat Bucket. NASA Earth Observatory Seligman, Courtney (2008). The Structure of the Terrestrial Planets. OnlineAstronomy eText Table of Contents. URL: cseligman. com. Accessed: 6thNovermber,2012 Shun-ichiro Karato. (1993). Inner Core Anisotropy Due to the MagneticField—induced Preferred Orientation of Iron. Science,  262 (5140):1708-1711. Staff. (2010 ). Oldest measurement of Earth's magnetic field reveals battle betweenSun and Earth for our atmosphere. Physorgnt. news. T. Gold. (1967).Radio Method for the Precise Measurement of the Rotation Period ofthe Earth. Science. 21 (3786):302-304 Taikan Oki & Shinjiro Kanae, (2006). Global Hydrological Cycles and World WaterResources. Science 313 (1068. ) Tom Fenchel & Bland J. Finlay. (1994). The evolution of life without oxygen. Americanscientist. 82 (1):22-29 Walter S. Adams, (1934). The Planets and Their Atmospheres. The Scientific Monthly. 39 (1):5-19 Yoder, Charles F. (1995). Global Earth Physic. A Handbook of Physical Constants. Washington: American Geophysical Union. p. 12

The education in Britain and China

The Education in Britain and China Abstract: Education plays an important role all over the world. A highly developed nation depends on educated professionals and a skilled workforce. Education is an absolute necessity for economic and social development. UK and China, sharing different culture, have two typically different education systems. This essay pays more attention to the diversity of two education systems. Some similarities and differences can be found, which can be classified as the comparison in eastern and western education. Key Words: Education; Britain; China;Introduction: The education system of the I-JK is quite special and has an old history of evolution. It differs from that of China, but there are also some connections and differences between two countries. As for which one is better, it depends. Just as a coin has two sides, both are better than each other in some areas. Body: 1 . Education System Education is a vital concern throughout Britain. The Britain educat ion system is divided into early years, primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. While in China the public education is run by the Ministry of Education.All citizens must attend school for at least nine years. The government provides free primary education and secondary education for the teenagers. And there is also pre- school education, higher education and other educations. 1 Pre- school Education Up to age 5, children in Britain may have some pre-schooling in nursery schools, day care or play groups. The government has no obligation to provide such facilities, so many schools are private enterprise arrangement. The condition is similar in China. While the government also provides some financial support for parents in Britain, hat we don't have in China. Primary School In Britain, primary education is given for the students aging from 5 to 11. In this period, students learn to read and write. It is similar to the educational system in China. 3 Secondary Educ ation In Britain, students from 11 to 16 years old receive secondary education. They follow a general syllabus which leads to the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education). After passing this exam, there is a selection of subjects. Lessons are given together with assignments which need to be completed in order to pass this level. While in China, the aim of three-year middle education is to enter into a better high school.High school is essential for Chinese students to get into a better university. So it is necessary for Chinese students to study hard. 4 Higher Education After further studies in the I-JK, students can accept higher studies. There are about 90 universities, including the Open University, Oxford, and Cambridge, that were established in the 13th Century. Universities are funded indirectly by central government grants. They enjoy complete academic freedom, appoint their own staff, ecide what kind of students to admit, provide their own courses and award their ow n degrees.Admission is by selection, which is on the basis of A- level results, school reterences and an interview. Older students may quality tor admission through different examinations provided by fundamental courses of further education at colleges. Degrees are awarded after successful continuous work assessment and final examinations. The higher education in China is obviously different from I-JK. In China, it is commonly considered that public universities, especially those national universities are better than private ones, under great nfluence by the Soviet Union's higher education system.Universities in China generally select their students based on students' performances in the College Entrance Examinations; the entrance scores required by public universities are typically much higher than those of private ones. 2. Teaching Mode On the whole, we may use â€Å"flexibility' to describe British mode and â€Å"formality' to outline Chinese mode. This kind of mode is typical in the universities. In British, there is no fixed text books or bibliography, your texts are in the library and in every aspects of social life related to your specialty.The professor will choose his content of teaching in accordance with the latest trends and requirements of society. Apart from traditional classes and lectures, informal group work, presentation and manual practices also abound, which improve students' ability to pose new points as well as to analysis and solve practical problems. All of these make them more competitive in the Job market. In contrast, Chinese pattern of teaching is more systematic and rigorous, inheriting the legacy of feudal times. The majesty of teacher prevailing, few disciples dare to defer the supreme authority of their hierophant.This sort of manner ensures the accurate and effective inform of knowledge, while hampers the spirit of innovation. Despite new systems of appraisal of pupils imported from the west, exams still retains its dominant place in evaluating how a student is getting on. That is probably why Chinese â€Å"geniuses† sweep almost all the gold medals of ‘MO, but none manage to get a Nobel Prize in science technology. 3. Conclusion The British school children are not designed for the future to impart certain specialized knowledge, but the key to expand children's horizons, to develop good abits, for future acceptance of high level education.Children in the classroom learn what they want and how to learn. The class atmosphere is free with no unified regulations or formal syllabus, but with children's love to move, easy to transfer the characteristics of interest, whenever and wherever possible to replace the teaching content. In addition to simple reading, writing, calculating, music, dancing, painting, and handmade, they also carry out various activities whatever children like. â€Å"Open education† is the biggest characteristic of British school children. This kind of eaching method i s used in both group activities and individual activities.A flexible schedule and many self-education materials are used to cultivate children's independence and creativity. The Chinese education is a little bit different from Britain's. Children in China are a little more stressed than those in Britain. China's exam-oriented education is a huge burden for today's children. Designed to give the students hardly any time to breath, the Chinese education system is adept in teaching the children â€Å"summaries†, also teaching that it's perfectly acceptable not to uestion the status quo. (A Chinese Teacher's Perspective: China and the U.S. Education Systems Compared) In conclusion, the differences between Britain and China result from the culture differences. The western education puts emphasis on diversi ty, tree learning atmosphere and the lite principle ot playing, learning and growing. It is something that we lack and need to modestly study. While there is no strict core syst em in the content of the curriculum, happy growth reduces to follow one's own inclination. Each has its own merits. All we need to do is that†learn from ach other, take the essence and discard the dregs, and grow together.

Mary Shelley s Frankenstein - Original Writing - 1177 Words

Title:Frankenstein Author:Mary Shelley Date of Publication:March 11, 1818 Provide information about the period (literary, historical, philosophical, etc.). Many people argue that the gothic genre is a reaction to the Age of Reason. This movement stressed the power of the human mind. Frankenstein is categorized as this. Identify the genre and specify how this work fits its characteristics. The genre is gothic science fiction. It combines fiction, horror, and romanticism. It display horror in that many murders and deaths took place. Also, Frankenstein was seen as an enemy that struck horror in people’s faces. It is also science fiction because Mary Shelley presents information that is advanced beyond the time of the 1800’s. Provide significant details about the author. Both her parents were revolutionaries and writers. She was inspired by reading a series of german ghost stories. Shelley was known to daydream and escape into her imagination Provide plot points (use bullets or a graphic organizer). Robert Walton begins the novel with his letters. Victor boards Walton’s ship and starts his narration. Victor’s parents adopted a child named Elizabeth, who will marry Victor when they get older. After years of studying, Victor finds out how to bring a body to life. Victor grows sick, contemplating his creation. He brought a monster to life. Victor s younger brother William is murdered.The family s servant Justine is blamed. Justine is executed. Victor goes on aShow MoreRelatedMary Shelley s Frankenstein - Original Writing1489 Words   |  6 Pagesrecurred, but I was unable to solve them (Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein).† Mary Shelley’s book, Frankenstein, parallels her own experiences. Shelley’s mother died in childbirth, and she was left â€Å"dependent on none and related to none.† Her father, William Godwin, abandoned his daughter emotionally when he remarried a woman who treated Mary poorly. Shelley often searched for an understanding of who she was. She did not have a mother to give her an education, so Mary taught herself by seeking answers toRead MoreMary Shelley s Frankenstein - Original Writing1146 Words   |  5 Pagesrecurred, but I was unable to solve them (Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein).† Mary Shelley’s book, Frankenstein, parallels her own experiences. Shelley’s mother died in childbirth, and she was left â€Å"dependent on none and related to none.† Her father, William Godwin, abandoned his daughter emotionally when he remarried a woman who treated Mary poorly. Shelley often searched for an understanding of who she was. 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Although Moers’ essayRead MoreShelley s Views Of The Dangers Of Knowledge1679 Words   |  7 Pagesdangers of knowledge contained in her novel Frankenstein â€Å"You seek for knowledge and wisdom, as I once did; and I ardently hope that the gratification of your wishes not be a serpent to sting you, as mine had been,† this fragment of Victor Frankenstein’s conversations with Robert Walton exemplifies Mary Shelley’s views of the dangers of knowledge, in her novel, â€Å"Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus,† where main characters Robert Walton and Victor Frankenstein ruthlessly peruse knowledge. The themeRead MoreSublime In Frankenstein Essay1497 Words   |  6 PagesMost Gothic novels aim to show the sinister side of human nature. They depict the dark terrors which lie beneath the reader s mentality. The term Gothic suggests a genre which deals with frightening and mysterious settings by giving connotations of ghostly castles and supernatural events. The Sublime experience as stated by the critic Longinus is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a matter of treatment. The particular form of the sublime experience that require s prepossessing objects is not only the form; it is simply theRead MoreFrankenstein Vs. Mary Shelley s Frankenstein3235 Words   |  13 PagesFebruary 2015 Frankenstein vs. Mary Shelley Frankenstein is one of the most influential books in gothic literature. The author of this masterpiece is Mary Shelley; her complicated life influenced her to write Frankenstein. Most wonder why Mary Shelley chose to write Frankenstein and what influenced her. Mary Shelley’s early life was challenging and it had an impact on her writing. Her trip to Scotland changed her morals and love life inclined the events within her novel. World events within Mary Shelley’sRead More The Theme of Justice in Frankenstein Essay942 Words   |  4 PagesHow important is the theme of justice in Frankenstein. Refer closely to the creation scene and Justines trial scene. Justice is defined as justice is the administration of law; especially : the establishment or determination of rights according to the rules of law or equity which can be interpreted as adhering to laws of both a natural and civilised level. In Frankenstein many of the fundamental laws of both humanity and the world we live in are broken. Creation in he Christian faith isRead MoreEssay on Frankenstein - Societal Changes in Film2491 Words   |  10 PagesA Look at the Story of Frankenstein and the Societal Changes in Film Frankenstein’s monster, a misunderstood creation fabricated by Victor Frankenstein in Mary Shelley’s classic story, has been terrorizing readers and audiences alike for well over one hundred and fifty years. Since the story was first written in 1818, there have been numerous plays, and over one hundred films, each adaptation trying to portray its own vision of the original story. Mary Shelley came to create â€Å"the prototype